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Cytokines and the endocrine system. I. The immunoendocrine network

The cytokines interleukin 1 (IL-1), interferon gamma (IFN-), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-) are the main common denominators that elicit the acute phase response, a generalized host reaction caused by a variety of pathological processes, i.e. infection, inflammation, tissue injury, neoplastic diseases and physical and psychological stress. It is characterized by activation of the immune system and associated changes in neurological, metabolic and endocrine functions (1), irrespective of the diverse underlying pathological conditions. As the classical hormones, cytokines have both autocrine, paracrine and endocrine effects. However, in contrast to hormones, cytokines do not appear to have any homeostatic importance, but are almost exclusively induced and liberated in tissues and to the circulation in association with cellular injury. Further, cytokines exert their action at lower molar concentrations than most hormones (10^–12 to 10^–15 mol/l), and their actions are potentiated by several other cytokines. Moreover, instead of the negative

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